Next: Introduction, Up: (dir) [Contents][Index]
This file documents version 4.2.2.176-43fd-dirty of
GNU sed
, a stream editor.
Copyright © 1998-2016 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
This document is released under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 1.1, or (at your option) any later version.
You should have received a copy of the GNU Free Documentation
License along with GNU sed
; see the file COPYING.DOC.
If not, write to the Free Software Foundation, 59 Temple Place - Suite
330, Boston, MA 02110-1301, USA.
There are no Cover Texts and no Invariant Sections; this text, along with its equivalent in the printed manual, constitutes the Title Page.
• Introduction: | Introduction | |
• Invoking sed: | Invocation | |
• Exit status: | Exit status | |
• sed Programs: | sed programs
| |
• Examples: | Some sample scripts | |
• Limitations: | Limitations and (non-)limitations of GNU sed
| |
• Other Resources: | Other resources for learning about sed
| |
• Reporting Bugs: | Reporting bugs | |
• Extended regexps: | egrep -style regular expressions
| |
• Concept Index: | A menu with all the topics in this manual. | |
• Command and Option Index: | A menu with all sed commands and
command-line options.
| |
— The detailed node listing — sed Programs: | ||
• Execution Cycle: | How sed works
| |
• Addresses: | Selecting lines with sed
| |
• Regular Expressions: | Overview of regular expression syntax | |
• Common Commands: | Often used commands | |
• The "s" Command: | sed ’s Swiss Army Knife
| |
• Other Commands: | Less frequently used commands | |
• Programming Commands: | Commands for sed gurus
| |
• Extended Commands: | Commands specific of GNU sed
| |
• Escapes: | Specifying special characters | |
Examples: | ||
• Centering lines: | ||
• Increment a number: | ||
• Rename files to lower case: | ||
• Print bash environment: | ||
• Reverse chars of lines: | ||
• tac: | Reverse lines of files | |
• cat -n: | Numbering lines | |
• cat -b: | Numbering non-blank lines | |
• wc -c: | Counting chars | |
• wc -w: | Counting words | |
• wc -l: | Counting lines | |
• head: | Printing the first lines | |
• tail: | Printing the last lines | |
• uniq: | Make duplicate lines unique | |
• uniq -d: | Print duplicated lines of input | |
• uniq -u: | Remove all duplicated lines | |
• cat -s: | Squeezing blank lines | |
Next: Invoking sed, Previous: Top, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
sed
is a stream editor.
A stream editor is used to perform basic text
transformations on an input stream
(a file or input from a pipeline).
While in some ways similar to an editor which
permits scripted edits (such as ed
),
sed
works by making only one pass over the
input(s), and is consequently more efficient.
But it is sed
’s ability to filter text in a pipeline
which particularly distinguishes it from other types of
editors.
Next: Exit status, Previous: Introduction, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
Normally sed
is invoked like this:
sed SCRIPT INPUTFILE...
The full format for invoking sed
is:
sed OPTIONS... [SCRIPT] [INPUTFILE...]
If you do not specify INPUTFILE, or if INPUTFILE is -,
sed
filters the contents of the standard input. The script
is actually the first non-option parameter, which sed
specially
considers a script and not an input file if (and only if) none of the
other options specifies a script to be executed, that is if neither
of the -e and -f options is specified.
sed
may be invoked with the following command-line options:
--version
Print out the version of sed
that is being run and a copyright notice,
then exit.
--help
Print a usage message briefly summarizing these command-line options and the bug-reporting address, then exit.
-n
--quiet
--silent
By default, sed
prints out the pattern space
at the end of each cycle through the script (see How sed
works).
These options disable this automatic printing,
and sed
only produces output when explicitly told to
via the p
command.
-e script
--expression=script
Add the commands in script to the set of commands to be run while processing the input.
-f script-file
--file=script-file
Add the commands contained in the file script-file to the set of commands to be run while processing the input.
-i[SUFFIX]
--in-place[=SUFFIX]
This option specifies that files are to be edited in-place.
GNU sed
does this by creating a temporary file and
sending output to this file rather than to the standard
output.1.
This option implies -s.
When the end of the file is reached, the temporary file is renamed to the output file’s original name. The extension, if supplied, is used to modify the name of the old file before renaming the temporary file, thereby making a backup copy2).
This rule is followed: if the extension doesn’t contain a *
,
then it is appended to the end of the current filename as a
suffix; if the extension does contain one or more *
characters, then each asterisk is replaced with the
current filename. This allows you to add a prefix to the
backup file, instead of (or in addition to) a suffix, or
even to place backup copies of the original files into another
directory (provided the directory already exists).
If no extension is supplied, the original file is overwritten without making a backup.
-l N
--line-length=N
Specify the default line-wrap length for the l
command.
A length of 0 (zero) means to never wrap long lines. If
not specified, it is taken to be 70.
--posix
GNU sed
includes several extensions to POSIX
sed. In order to simplify writing portable scripts, this
option disables all the extensions that this manual documents,
including additional commands.
Most of the extensions accept sed
programs that
are outside the syntax mandated by POSIX, but some
of them (such as the behavior of the N
command
described in Reporting Bugs) actually violate the
standard. If you want to disable only the latter kind of
extension, you can set the POSIXLY_CORRECT
variable
to a non-empty value.
-b
--binary
This option is available on every platform, but is only effective where the
operating system makes a distinction between text files and binary files.
When such a distinction is made—as is the case for MS-DOS, Windows,
Cygwin—text files are composed of lines separated by a carriage return
and a line feed character, and sed
does not see the
ending CR. When this option is specified, sed
will open
input files in binary mode, thus not requesting this special processing
and considering lines to end at a line feed.
--follow-symlinks
This option is available only on platforms that support
symbolic links and has an effect only if option -i
is specified. In this case, if the file that is specified
on the command line is a symbolic link, sed
will
follow the link and edit the ultimate destination of the
link. The default behavior is to break the symbolic link,
so that the link destination will not be modified.
-E
-r
--regexp-extended
Use extended regular expressions rather than basic
regular expressions. Extended regexps are those that
egrep
accepts; they can be clearer because they
usually have fewer backslashes.
Historically this was a GNU extension,
but the -E
extension has since been added to the POSIX standard
(http://austingroupbugs.net/view.php?id=528),
so use -E for portability.
GNU sed has accepted -E as an undocumented option for years,
and *BSD seds have accepted -E for years as well,
but scripts that use -E might not port to other older systems.
See Extended regular expressions.
-s
--separate
By default, sed
will consider the files specified on the
command line as a single continuous long stream. This GNU sed
extension allows the user to consider them as separate files:
range addresses (such as ‘/abc/,/def/’) are not allowed
to span several files, line numbers are relative to the start
of each file, $
refers to the last line of each file,
and files invoked from the R
commands are rewound at the
start of each file.
--sandbox
In sandbox mode, e/w/r
commands are rejected - programs containing
them will be aborted without being run. Sandbox mode ensures sed
operates only on the input files designated on the command line, and
cannot run external programs.
-u
--unbuffered
Buffer both input and output as minimally as practical. (This is particularly useful if the input is coming from the likes of ‘tail -f’, and you wish to see the transformed output as soon as possible.)
-z
--null-data
--zero-terminated
Treat the input as a set of lines, each terminated by a zero byte (the ASCII ‘NUL’ character) instead of a newline. This option can be used with commands like ‘sort -z’ and ‘find -print0’ to process arbitrary file names.
If no -e, -f, --expression, or --file options are given on the command-line, then the first non-option argument on the command line is taken to be the script to be executed.
If any command-line parameters remain after processing the above, these parameters are interpreted as the names of input files to be processed. A file name of ‘-’ refers to the standard input stream. The standard input will be processed if no file names are specified.
Next: sed Programs, Previous: Invoking sed, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
An exit status of zero indicates success, and a nonzero value
indicates failure. GNU sed
returns the following exit status
error values:
Successful completion.
Invalid command, invalid syntax, invalid regular expression or a
GNU sed
extension command used with --posix.
One or more of the input file specified on the command line could not be opened (e.g. if a file is not found, or read permission is denied). Processing continued with other files.
An I/O error, or a serious processing error during runtime,
GNU sed
aborted immediately.
Additionally, the commands q
and Q
can be used to terminate
sed
with a custom exit code value (this is a GNU sed
extension):
$ echo | sed 'Q42' ; echo $? 42
Next: Examples, Previous: Exit status, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
sed
ProgramsA sed
program consists of one or more sed
commands,
passed in by one or more of the
-e, -f, --expression, and --file
options, or the first non-option argument if zero of these
options are used.
This document will refer to “the” sed
script;
this is understood to mean the in-order catenation
of all of the scripts and script-files passed in.
Commands within a script or script-file can be
separated by semicolons (;
) or newlines (ASCII 10).
Some commands, due to their syntax, cannot be followed by semicolons
working as command separators and thus should be terminated
with newlines or be placed at the end of a script or script-file.
Commands can also be preceded with optional non-significant
whitespace characters.
Each sed
command consists of an optional address or
address range, followed by a one-character command name
and any additional command-specific code.
• Execution Cycle: | How sed works
| |
• Addresses: | Selecting lines with sed
| |
• Regular Expressions: | Overview of regular expression syntax | |
• Common Commands: | Often used commands | |
• The "s" Command: | sed ’s Swiss Army Knife
| |
• Other Commands: | Less frequently used commands | |
• Programming Commands: | Commands for sed gurus
| |
• Extended Commands: | Commands specific of GNU sed
| |
• Escapes: | Specifying special characters |
Next: Addresses, Up: sed Programs [Contents][Index]
sed
Workssed
maintains two data buffers: the active pattern space,
and the auxiliary hold space. Both are initially empty.
sed
operates by performing the following cycle on each
line of input: first, sed
reads one line from the input
stream, removes any trailing newline, and places it in the pattern space.
Then commands are executed; each command can have an address associated
to it: addresses are a kind of condition code, and a command is only
executed if the condition is verified before the command is to be
executed.
When the end of the script is reached, unless the -n option is in use, the contents of pattern space are printed out to the output stream, adding back the trailing newline if it was removed.3 Then the next cycle starts for the next input line.
Unless special commands (like ‘D’) are used, the pattern space is deleted between two cycles. The hold space, on the other hand, keeps its data between cycles (see commands ‘h’, ‘H’, ‘x’, ‘g’, ‘G’ to move data between both buffers).
Next: Regular Expressions, Previous: Execution Cycle, Up: sed Programs [Contents][Index]
sed
Addresses in a sed
script can be in any of the following forms:
number
Specifying a line number will match only that line in the input.
(Note that sed
counts lines continuously across all input files
unless -i or -s options are specified.)
first~step
This GNU extension matches every stepth line
starting with line first.
In particular, lines will be selected when there exists
a non-negative n such that the current line-number equals
first + (n * step).
Thus, to select the odd-numbered lines,
one would use 1~2
;
to pick every third line starting with the second, ‘2~3’ would be used;
to pick every fifth line starting with the tenth, use ‘10~5’;
and ‘50~0’ is just an obscure way of saying 50
.
$
This address matches the last line of the last file of input, or the last line of each file when the -i or -s options are specified.
/regexp/
This will select any line which matches the regular expression regexp.
If regexp itself includes any /
characters,
each must be escaped by a backslash (\
).
The empty regular expression ‘//’ repeats the last regular
expression match (the same holds if the empty regular expression is
passed to the s
command). Note that modifiers to regular expressions
are evaluated when the regular expression is compiled, thus it is invalid to
specify them together with the empty regular expression.
\%regexp%
(The %
may be replaced by any other single character.)
This also matches the regular expression regexp,
but allows one to use a different delimiter than /
.
This is particularly useful if the regexp itself contains
a lot of slashes, since it avoids the tedious escaping of every /
.
If regexp itself includes any delimiter characters,
each must be escaped by a backslash (\
).
/regexp/I
\%regexp%I
The I
modifier to regular-expression matching is a GNU
extension which causes the regexp to be matched in
a case-insensitive manner.
/regexp/M
\%regexp%M
The M
modifier to regular-expression matching is a GNU sed
extension which directs GNU sed
to match the regular expression
in multi-line mode. The modifier causes ^
and $
to
match respectively (in addition to the normal behavior) the empty string
after a newline, and the empty string before a newline. There are
special character sequences
(\`
and \'
)
which always match the beginning or the end of the buffer.
In addition,
the period character does not match a new-line character in
multi-line mode.
If no addresses are given, then all lines are matched; if one address is given, then only lines matching that address are matched.
An address range can be specified by specifying two addresses
separated by a comma (,
). An address range matches lines
starting from where the first address matches, and continues
until the second address matches (inclusively).
If the second address is a regexp, then checking for the ending match will start with the line following the line which matched the first address: a range will always span at least two lines (except of course if the input stream ends).
If the second address is a number less than (or equal to) the line matching the first address, then only the one line is matched.
GNU sed
also supports some special two-address forms; all these
are GNU extensions:
0,/regexp/
A line number of 0
can be used in an address specification like
0,/regexp/
so that sed
will try to match
regexp in the first input line too. In other words,
0,/regexp/
is similar to 1,/regexp/
,
except that if addr2 matches the very first line of input the
0,/regexp/
form will consider it to end the range, whereas
the 1,/regexp/
form will match the beginning of its range and
hence make the range span up to the second occurrence of the
regular expression.
Note that this is the only place where the 0
address makes
sense; there is no 0-th line and commands which are given the 0
address in any other way will give an error.
addr1,+N
Matches addr1 and the N lines following addr1.
addr1,~N
Matches addr1 and the lines following addr1 until the next line whose input line number is a multiple of N.
Appending the !
character to the end of an address
specification negates the sense of the match.
That is, if the !
character follows an address range,
then only lines which do not match the address range
will be selected.
This also works for singleton addresses,
and, perhaps perversely, for the null address.
Next: Common Commands, Previous: Addresses, Up: sed Programs [Contents][Index]
To know how to use sed
, people should understand regular
expressions (regexp for short). A regular expression
is a pattern that is matched against a
subject string from left to right. Most characters are
ordinary: they stand for
themselves in a pattern, and match the corresponding characters
in the subject. As a trivial example, the pattern
The quick brown fox
matches a portion of a subject string that is identical to
itself. The power of regular expressions comes from the
ability to include alternatives and repetitions in the pattern.
These are encoded in the pattern by the use of special characters,
which do not stand for themselves but instead
are interpreted in some special way. Here is a brief description
of regular expression syntax as used in sed
.
char
A single ordinary character matches itself.
*
Matches a sequence of zero or more instances of matches for the
preceding regular expression, which must be an ordinary character, a
special character preceded by \
, a .
, a grouped regexp
(see below), or a bracket expression. As a GNU extension, a
postfixed regular expression can also be followed by *
; for
example, a**
is equivalent to a*
. POSIX
1003.1-2001 says that *
stands for itself when it appears at
the start of a regular expression or subexpression, but many
nonGNU implementations do not support this and portable
scripts should instead use \*
in these contexts.
\+
As *
, but matches one or more. It is a GNU extension.
\?
As *
, but only matches zero or one. It is a GNU extension.
\{i\}
As *
, but matches exactly i sequences (i is a
decimal integer; for portability, keep it between 0 and 255
inclusive).
\{i,j\}
Matches between i and j, inclusive, sequences.
\{i,\}
Matches more than or equal to i sequences.
\(regexp\)
Groups the inner regexp as a whole, this is used to:
\(abcd\)*
:
this will search for zero or more whole sequences
of ‘abcd’, while abcd*
would search
for ‘abc’ followed by zero or more occurrences
of ‘d’. Note that support for \(abcd\)*
is
required by POSIX 1003.1-2001, but many non-GNU
implementations do not support it and hence it is not universally
portable.
.
Matches any character, including newline.
^
Matches the null string at beginning of the pattern space, i.e. what appears after the circumflex must appear at the beginning of the pattern space.
In most scripts, pattern space is initialized to the content of each
line (see How sed
works). So, it is a
useful simplification to think of ^#include
as matching only
lines where ‘#include’ is the first thing on line—if there are
spaces before, for example, the match fails. This simplification is
valid as long as the original content of pattern space is not modified,
for example with an s
command.
^
acts as a special character only at the beginning of the
regular expression or subexpression (that is, after \(
or
\|
). Portable scripts should avoid ^
at the beginning of
a subexpression, though, as POSIX allows implementations that
treat ^
as an ordinary character in that context.
$
It is the same as ^
, but refers to end of pattern space.
$
also acts as a special character only at the end
of the regular expression or subexpression (that is, before \)
or \|
), and its use at the end of a subexpression is not
portable.
[list]
[^list]
Matches any single character in list: for example,
[aeiou]
matches all vowels. A list may include
sequences like char1-char2
, which
matches any character between (inclusive) char1
and char2.
A leading ^
reverses the meaning of list, so that
it matches any single character not in list. To include
]
in the list, make it the first character (after
the ^
if needed), to include -
in the list,
make it the first or last; to include ^
put
it after the first character.
The characters $
, *
, .
, [
, and \
are normally not special within list. For example, [\*]
matches either ‘\’ or ‘*’, because the \
is not
special here. However, strings like [.ch.]
, [=a=]
, and
[:space:]
are special within list and represent collating
symbols, equivalence classes, and character classes, respectively, and
[
is therefore special within list when it is followed by
.
, =
, or :
. Also, when not in
POSIXLY_CORRECT
mode, special escapes like \n
and
\t
are recognized within list. See Escapes.
regexp1\|regexp2
Matches either regexp1 or regexp2. Use parentheses to use complex alternative regular expressions. The matching process tries each alternative in turn, from left to right, and the first one that succeeds is used. It is a GNU extension.
regexp1regexp2
Matches the concatenation of regexp1 and regexp2.
Concatenation binds more tightly than \|
, ^
, and
$
, but less tightly than the other regular expression
operators.
\digit
Matches the digit-th \(…\)
parenthesized
subexpression in the regular expression. This is called a back
reference. Subexpressions are implicity numbered by counting
occurrences of \(
left-to-right.
\n
Matches the newline character.
\char
Matches char, where char is one of $
,
*
, .
, [
, \
, or ^
.
Note that the only C-like
backslash sequences that you can portably assume to be
interpreted are \n
and \\
; in particular
\t
is not portable, and matches a ‘t’ under most
implementations of sed
, rather than a tab character.
Note that the regular expression matcher is greedy, i.e., matches are attempted from left to right and, if two or more matches are possible starting at the same character, it selects the longest.
Examples:
Matches ‘abcdef’.
Matches zero or more ‘a’s followed by a single ‘b’. For example, ‘b’ or ‘aaaaab’.
Matches ‘b’ or ‘ab’.
Matches one or more ‘a’s followed by one or more ‘b’s: ‘ab’ is the shortest possible match, but other examples are ‘aaaab’ or ‘abbbbb’ or ‘aaaaaabbbbbbb’.
These two both match all the characters in a string; however, the first matches every string (including the empty string), while the second matches only strings containing at least one character.
This matches a string starting with ‘main’, followed by an opening and closing parenthesis. The ‘n’, ‘(’ and ‘)’ need not be adjacent.
This matches a string beginning with ‘#’.
This matches a string ending with a single backslash. The regexp contains two backslashes for escaping.
Instead, this matches a string consisting of a single dollar sign, because it is escaped.
In the C locale, this matches any ASCII letters or digits.
(Here tab stands for a single tab character.) This matches a string of one or more characters, none of which is a space or a tab. Usually this means a word.
This matches a string consisting of two equal substrings separated by a newline.
This matches nine characters followed by an ‘A’ at the end of a line.
This matches the start of a string that contains 16 characters, the last of which is an ‘A’.
Next: The "s" Command, Previous: Regular Expressions, Up: sed Programs [Contents][Index]
If you use sed
at all, you will quite likely want to know
these commands.
#
[No addresses allowed.]
The #
character begins a comment;
the comment continues until the next newline.
If you are concerned about portability, be aware that
some implementations of sed
(which are not POSIX
conformant) may only support a single one-line comment,
and then only when the very first character of the script is a #
.
Warning: if the first two characters of the sed
script
are #n
, then the -n (no-autoprint) option is forced.
If you want to put a comment in the first line of your script
and that comment begins with the letter ‘n’
and you do not want this behavior,
then be sure to either use a capital ‘N’,
or place at least one space before the ‘n’.
q [exit-code]
This command only accepts a single address.
Exit sed
without processing any more commands or input.
Note that the current pattern space is printed if auto-print is
not disabled with the -n options. The ability to return
an exit code from the sed
script is a GNU sed
extension.
d
Delete the pattern space; immediately start next cycle.
p
Print out the pattern space (to the standard output). This command is usually only used in conjunction with the -n command-line option.
n
If auto-print is not disabled, print the pattern space,
then, regardless, replace the pattern space with the next line of input.
If there is no more input then sed
exits without processing
any more commands.
{ commands }
A group of commands may be enclosed between
{
and }
characters.
This is particularly useful when you want a group of commands
to be triggered by a single address (or address-range) match.
Next: Other Commands, Previous: Common Commands, Up: sed Programs [Contents][Index]
s
CommandThe syntax of the s
(as in substitute) command is
‘s/regexp/replacement/flags’. The /
characters may be uniformly replaced by any other single
character within any given s
command. The /
character (or whatever other character is used in its stead)
can appear in the regexp or replacement
only if it is preceded by a \
character.
The s
command is probably the most important in sed
and has a lot of different options. Its basic concept is simple:
the s
command attempts to match the pattern
space against the supplied regexp; if the match is
successful, then that portion of the pattern
space which was matched is replaced with replacement.
The replacement can contain \n
(n being
a number from 1 to 9, inclusive) references, which refer to
the portion of the match which is contained between the nth
\(
and its matching \)
.
Also, the replacement can contain unescaped &
characters which reference the whole matched portion
of the pattern space.
Finally, as a GNU sed
extension, you can include a
special sequence made of a backslash and one of the letters
L
, l
, U
, u
, or E
.
The meaning is as follows:
\L
Turn the replacement
to lowercase until a \U
or \E
is found,
\l
Turn the next character to lowercase,
\U
Turn the replacement to uppercase
until a \L
or \E
is found,
\u
Turn the next character to uppercase,
\E
Stop case conversion started by \L
or \U
.
When the g
flag is being used, case conversion does not
propagate from one occurrence of the regular expression to
another. For example, when the following command is executed
with ‘a-b-’ in pattern space:
s/\(b\?\)-/x\u\1/g
the output is ‘axxB’. When replacing the first ‘-’,
the ‘\u’ sequence only affects the empty replacement of
‘\1’. It does not affect the x
character that is
added to pattern space when replacing b-
with xB
.
On the other hand, \l
and \u
do affect the remainder
of the replacement text if they are followed by an empty substitution.
With ‘a-b-’ in pattern space, the following command:
s/\(b\?\)-/\u\1x/g
will replace ‘-’ with ‘X’ (uppercase) and ‘b-’ with ‘Bx’. If this behavior is undesirable, you can prevent it by adding a ‘\E’ sequence—after ‘\1’ in this case.
To include a literal \
, &
, or newline in the final
replacement, be sure to precede the desired \
, &
,
or newline in the replacement with a \
.
The s
command can be followed by zero or more of the
following flags:
g
Apply the replacement to all matches to the regexp, not just the first.
number
Only replace the numberth match of the regexp.
interaction in s
command
Note: the POSIX standard does not specify what should happen
when you mix the g
and number modifiers,
and currently there is no widely agreed upon meaning
across sed
implementations.
For GNU sed
, the interaction is defined to be:
ignore matches before the numberth,
and then match and replace all matches from
the numberth on.
p
If the substitution was made, then print the new pattern space.
Note: when both the p
and e
options are specified,
the relative ordering of the two produces very different results.
In general, ep
(evaluate then print) is what you want,
but operating the other way round can be useful for debugging.
For this reason, the current version of GNU sed
interprets
specially the presence of p
options both before and after
e
, printing the pattern space before and after evaluation,
while in general flags for the s
command show their
effect just once. This behavior, although documented, might
change in future versions.
w file-name
If the substitution was made, then write out the result to the named file.
As a GNU sed
extension, two special values of file-name are
supported: /dev/stderr, which writes the result to the standard
error, and /dev/stdout, which writes to the standard
output.4
e
This command allows one to pipe input from a shell command
into pattern space. If a substitution was made, the command
that is found in pattern space is executed and pattern space
is replaced with its output. A trailing newline is suppressed;
results are undefined if the command to be executed contains
a NUL character. This is a GNU sed
extension.
I
i
The I
modifier to regular-expression matching is a GNU
extension which makes sed
match regexp in a
case-insensitive manner.
M
m
The M
modifier to regular-expression matching is a GNU sed
extension which directs GNU sed
to match the regular expression
in multi-line mode. The modifier causes ^
and $
to
match respectively (in addition to the normal behavior) the empty string
after a newline, and the empty string before a newline. There are
special character sequences
(\`
and \'
)
which always match the beginning or the end of the buffer.
In addition,
the period character does not match a new-line character in
multi-line mode.
Next: Programming Commands, Previous: The "s" Command, Up: sed Programs [Contents][Index]
Though perhaps less frequently used than those in the previous
section, some very small yet useful sed
scripts can be built with
these commands.
y/source-chars/dest-chars/
(The /
characters may be uniformly replaced by
any other single character within any given y
command.)
Transliterate any characters in the pattern space which match any of the source-chars with the corresponding character in dest-chars.
Instances of the /
(or whatever other character is used in its stead),
\
, or newlines can appear in the source-chars or dest-chars
lists, provide that each instance is escaped by a \
.
The source-chars and dest-chars lists must
contain the same number of characters (after de-escaping).
a\
text
As a GNU extension, this command accepts two addresses.
Queue the lines of text which follow this command
(each but the last ending with a \
,
which are removed from the output)
to be output at the end of the current cycle,
or when the next input line is read.
Escape sequences in text are processed, so you should
use \\
in text to print a single backslash.
As a GNU extension, if between the a
and the newline there is
other than a whitespace-\
sequence, then the text of this line,
starting at the first non-whitespace character after the a
,
is taken as the first line of the text block.
(This enables a simplification in scripting a one-line add.)
This extension also works with the i
and c
commands.
i\
text
As a GNU extension, this command accepts two addresses.
Immediately output the lines of text which follow this command
(each but the last ending with a \
,
which are removed from the output).
c\
text
Delete the lines matching the address or address-range,
and output the lines of text which follow this command
(each but the last ending with a \
,
which are removed from the output)
in place of the last line
(or in place of each line, if no addresses were specified).
A new cycle is started after this command is done,
since the pattern space will have been deleted.
=
As a GNU extension, this command accepts two addresses.
Print out the current input line number (with a trailing newline).
l n
Print the pattern space in an unambiguous form:
non-printable characters (and the \
character)
are printed in C-style escaped form; long lines are split,
with a trailing \
character to indicate the split;
the end of each line is marked with a $
.
n specifies the desired line-wrap length;
a length of 0 (zero) means to never wrap long lines. If omitted,
the default as specified on the command line is used. The n
parameter is a GNU sed
extension.
r filename
As a GNU extension, this command accepts two addresses.
Queue the contents of filename to be read and inserted into the output stream at the end of the current cycle, or when the next input line is read. Note that if filename cannot be read, it is treated as if it were an empty file, without any error indication.
As a GNU sed
extension, the special value /dev/stdin
is supported for the file name, which reads the contents of the
standard input.
w filename
Write the pattern space to filename.
As a GNU sed
extension, two special values of file-name are
supported: /dev/stderr, which writes the result to the standard
error, and /dev/stdout, which writes to the standard
output.5
The file will be created (or truncated) before the first input line is
read; all w
commands (including instances of the w
flag
on successful s
commands) which refer to the same filename
are output without closing and reopening the file.
D
If pattern space contains no newline, start a normal new cycle as if
the d
command was issued. Otherwise, delete text in the pattern
space up to the first newline, and restart cycle with the resultant
pattern space, without reading a new line of input.
N
Add a newline to the pattern space,
then append the next line of input to the pattern space.
If there is no more input then sed
exits without processing
any more commands.
When -z is used, a zero byte (the ascii ‘NUL’ character) is added between the lines (instead of a new line).
By default sed
does not terminate if there is no ’next’ input line.
This is a GNU extension which can be disabled with --posix.
See N command on the last line.
P
Print out the portion of the pattern space up to the first newline.
h
Replace the contents of the hold space with the contents of the pattern space.
H
Append a newline to the contents of the hold space, and then append the contents of the pattern space to that of the hold space.
g
Replace the contents of the pattern space with the contents of the hold space.
G
Append a newline to the contents of the pattern space, and then append the contents of the hold space to that of the pattern space.
x
Exchange the contents of the hold and pattern spaces.
Next: Extended Commands, Previous: Other Commands, Up: sed Programs [Contents][Index]
sed
gurusIn most cases, use of these commands indicates that you are
probably better off programming in something like awk
or Perl. But occasionally one is committed to sticking
with sed
, and these commands can enable one to write
quite convoluted scripts.
: label
[No addresses allowed.]
Specify the location of label for branch commands. In all other respects, a no-op.
b label
Unconditionally branch to label. The label may be omitted, in which case the next cycle is started.
t label
Branch to label only if there has been a successful s
ubstitution
since the last input line was read or conditional branch was taken.
The label may be omitted, in which case the next cycle is started.
Next: Escapes, Previous: Programming Commands, Up: sed Programs [Contents][Index]
sed
These commands are specific to GNU sed
, so you
must use them with care and only when you are sure that
hindering portability is not evil. They allow you to check
for GNU sed
extensions or to do tasks that are required
quite often, yet are unsupported by standard sed
s.
e [command]
This command allows one to pipe input from a shell command
into pattern space. Without parameters, the e
command
executes the command that is found in pattern space and
replaces the pattern space with the output; a trailing newline
is suppressed.
If a parameter is specified, instead, the e
command
interprets it as a command and sends its output to the output stream.
The command can run across multiple lines, all but the last ending with
a back-slash.
In both cases, the results are undefined if the command to be executed contains a NUL character.
Note that, unlike the r
command, the output of the command will
be printed immediately; the r
command instead delays the output
to the end of the current cycle.
F
Print out the file name of the current input file (with a trailing newline).
Q [exit-code]
This command only accepts a single address.
This command is the same as q
, but will not print the
contents of pattern space. Like q
, it provides the
ability to return an exit code to the caller.
This command can be useful because the only alternative ways to accomplish this apparently trivial function are to use the -n option (which can unnecessarily complicate your script) or resorting to the following snippet, which wastes time by reading the whole file without any visible effect:
:eat $d Quit silently on the last line N Read another line, silently g Overwrite pattern space each time to save memory b eat
R filename
Queue a line of filename to be read and inserted into the output stream at the end of the current cycle, or when the next input line is read. Note that if filename cannot be read, or if its end is reached, no line is appended, without any error indication.
As with the r
command, the special value /dev/stdin
is supported for the file name, which reads a line from the
standard input.
T label
Branch to label only if there have been no successful
s
ubstitutions since the last input line was read or
conditional branch was taken. The label may be omitted,
in which case the next cycle is started.
v version
This command does nothing, but makes sed
fail if
GNU sed
extensions are not supported, simply because other
versions of sed
do not implement it. In addition, you
can specify the version of sed
that your script
requires, such as 4.0.5
. The default is 4.0
because that is the first version that implemented this command.
This command enables all GNU extensions even if
POSIXLY_CORRECT
is set in the environment.
W filename
Write to the given filename the portion of the pattern space up to
the first newline. Everything said under the w
command about
file handling holds here too.
z
This command empties the content of pattern space. It is
usually the same as ‘s/.*//’, but is more efficient
and works in the presence of invalid multibyte sequences
in the input stream. POSIX mandates that such sequences
are not matched by ‘.’, so that there is no portable
way to clear sed
’s buffers in the middle of the
script in most multibyte locales (including UTF-8 locales).
Previous: Extended Commands, Up: sed Programs [Contents][Index]
Until this chapter, we have only encountered escapes of the form
‘\^’, which tell sed
not to interpret the circumflex
as a special character, but rather to take it literally. For
example, ‘\*’ matches a single asterisk rather than zero
or more backslashes.
This chapter introduces another kind of escape6—that
is, escapes that are applied to a character or sequence of characters
that ordinarily are taken literally, and that sed
replaces
with a special character. This provides a way
of encoding non-printable characters in patterns in a visible manner.
There is no restriction on the appearance of non-printing characters
in a sed
script but when a script is being prepared in the
shell or by text editing, it is usually easier to use one of
the following escape sequences than the binary character it
represents:
The list of these escapes is:
\a
Produces or matches a BEL character, that is an “alert” (ASCII 7).
\f
Produces or matches a form feed (ASCII 12).
\n
Produces or matches a newline (ASCII 10).
\r
Produces or matches a carriage return (ASCII 13).
\t
Produces or matches a horizontal tab (ASCII 9).
\v
Produces or matches a so called “vertical tab” (ASCII 11).
\cx
Produces or matches CONTROL-x, where x is any character. The precise effect of ‘\cx’ is as follows: if x is a lower case letter, it is converted to upper case. Then bit 6 of the character (hex 40) is inverted. Thus ‘\cz’ becomes hex 1A, but ‘\c{’ becomes hex 3B, while ‘\c;’ becomes hex 7B.
\dxxx
Produces or matches a character whose decimal ASCII value is xxx.
\oxxx
Produces or matches a character whose octal ASCII value is xxx.
\xxx
Produces or matches a character whose hexadecimal ASCII value is xx.
‘\b’ (backspace) was omitted because of the conflict with the existing “word boundary” meaning.
Other escapes match a particular character class and are valid only in regular expressions:
\w
Matches any “word” character. A “word” character is any letter or digit or the underscore character.
\W
Matches any “non-word” character.
\b
Matches a word boundary; that is it matches if the character to the left is a “word” character and the character to the right is a “non-word” character, or vice-versa.
\B
Matches everywhere but on a word boundary; that is it matches if the character to the left and the character to the right are either both “word” characters or both “non-word” characters.
\s
Matches whitespace characters (spaces and tabs). Newlines embedded in the pattern/hold spaces will also match:
$ printf "a b\nc\nd\n" | sed 'N;s/\s/X/g' aXbXc d
\S
Matches non-whitespace characrers.
\`
Matches only at the start of pattern space. This is different
from ^
in multi-line mode.
\'
Matches only at the end of pattern space. This is different
from $
in multi-line mode.
\<
Matches the beginning of a word.
\>
Matches the end of a word.
Next: Limitations, Previous: sed Programs, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
Here are some sed
scripts to guide you in the art of mastering
sed
.
Some exotic examples: | ||
---|---|---|
• Centering lines: | ||
• Increment a number: | ||
• Rename files to lower case: | ||
• Print bash environment: | ||
• Reverse chars of lines: | ||
Emulating standard utilities: | ||
• tac: | Reverse lines of files | |
• cat -n: | Numbering lines | |
• cat -b: | Numbering non-blank lines | |
• wc -c: | Counting chars | |
• wc -w: | Counting words | |
• wc -l: | Counting lines | |
• head: | Printing the first lines | |
• tail: | Printing the last lines | |
• uniq: | Make duplicate lines unique | |
• uniq -d: | Print duplicated lines of input | |
• uniq -u: | Remove all duplicated lines | |
• cat -s: | Squeezing blank lines |
Next: Increment a number, Up: Examples [Contents][Index]
This script centers all lines of a file on a 80 columns width.
To change that width, the number in \{…\}
must be
replaced, and the number of added spaces also must be changed.
Note how the buffer commands are used to separate parts in the regular expressions to be matched—this is a common technique.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f
# Put 80 spaces in the buffer 1 { x s/^$/ / s/^.*$/&&&&&&&&/ x }
# del leading and trailing spaces y/tab/ / s/^ *// s/ *$//
# add a newline and 80 spaces to end of line G
# keep first 81 chars (80 + a newline) s/^\(.\{81\}\).*$/\1/
# \2 matches half of the spaces, which are moved to the beginning s/^\(.*\)\n\(.*\)\2/\2\1/
Next: Rename files to lower case, Previous: Centering lines, Up: Examples [Contents][Index]
This script is one of a few that demonstrate how to do arithmetic
in sed
. This is indeed possible,7 but must be done manually.
To increment one number you just add 1 to last digit, replacing it by the following digit. There is one exception: when the digit is a nine the previous digits must be also incremented until you don’t have a nine.
This solution by Bruno Haible is very clever and smart because
it uses a single buffer; if you don’t have this limitation, the
algorithm used in Numbering lines, is faster.
It works by replacing trailing nines with an underscore, then
using multiple s
commands to increment the last digit,
and then again substituting underscores with zeros.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f /[^0-9]/ d
# replace all trailing 9s by _ (any other character except digits, could # be used) :d s/9\(_*\)$/_\1/ td
# incr last digit only. The first line adds a most-significant # digit of 1 if we have to add a digit.
s/^\(_*\)$/1\1/; tn s/8\(_*\)$/9\1/; tn s/7\(_*\)$/8\1/; tn s/6\(_*\)$/7\1/; tn s/5\(_*\)$/6\1/; tn s/4\(_*\)$/5\1/; tn s/3\(_*\)$/4\1/; tn s/2\(_*\)$/3\1/; tn s/1\(_*\)$/2\1/; tn s/0\(_*\)$/1\1/; tn
:n y/_/0/
Next: Print bash environment, Previous: Increment a number, Up: Examples [Contents][Index]
This is a pretty strange use of sed
. We transform text, and
transform it to be shell commands, then just feed them to shell.
Don’t worry, even worse hacks are done when using sed
; I have
seen a script converting the output of date
into a bc
program!
The main body of this is the sed
script, which remaps the name
from lower to upper (or vice-versa) and even checks out
if the remapped name is the same as the original name.
Note how the script is parameterized using shell
variables and proper quoting.
#! /bin/sh # rename files to lower/upper case... # # usage: # move-to-lower * # move-to-upper * # or # move-to-lower -R . # move-to-upper -R . #
help() { cat << eof Usage: $0 [-n] [-r] [-h] files...
-n do nothing, only see what would be done -R recursive (use find) -h this message files files to remap to lower case
Examples: $0 -n * (see if everything is ok, then...) $0 *
$0 -R .
eof }
apply_cmd='sh' finder='echo "$@" | tr " " "\n"' files_only=
while : do case "$1" in -n) apply_cmd='cat' ;; -R) finder='find "$@" -type f';; -h) help ; exit 1 ;; *) break ;; esac shift done
if [ -z "$1" ]; then echo Usage: $0 [-h] [-n] [-r] files... exit 1 fi
LOWER='abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz' UPPER='ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'
case `basename $0` in *upper*) TO=$UPPER; FROM=$LOWER ;; *) FROM=$UPPER; TO=$LOWER ;; esac
eval $finder | sed -n '
# remove all trailing slashes s/\/*$//
# add ./ if there is no path, only a filename /\//! s/^/.\//
# save path+filename h
# remove path s/.*\///
# do conversion only on filename y/'$FROM'/'$TO'/
# now line contains original path+file, while # hold space contains the new filename x
# add converted file name to line, which now contains # path/file-name\nconverted-file-name G
# check if converted file name is equal to original file name, # if it is, do not print anything /^.*\/\(.*\)\n\1/b
# escape special characters for the shell s/["$`\\]/\\&/g
# now, transform path/fromfile\n, into # mv path/fromfile path/tofile and print it s/^\(.*\/\)\(.*\)\n\(.*\)$/mv "\1\2" "\1\3"/p
' | $apply_cmd
Next: Reverse chars of lines, Previous: Rename files to lower case, Up: Examples [Contents][Index]
bash
EnvironmentThis script strips the definition of the shell functions
from the output of the set
Bourne-shell command.
#!/bin/sh
set | sed -n ' :x
# if no occurrence of ‘=()’ print and load next line /=()/! { p; b; } / () $/! { p; b; }
# possible start of functions section # save the line in case this is a var like FOO="() " h
# if the next line has a brace, we quit because # nothing comes after functions n /^{/ q
# print the old line x; p
# work on the new line now x; bx '
Next: tac, Previous: Print bash environment, Up: Examples [Contents][Index]
This script can be used to reverse the position of characters in lines. The technique moves two characters at a time, hence it is faster than more intuitive implementations.
Note the tx
command before the definition of the label.
This is often needed to reset the flag that is tested by
the t
command.
Imaginative readers will find uses for this script. An example
is reversing the output of banner
.8
#!/usr/bin/sed -f /../! b
# Reverse a line. Begin embedding the line between two newlines s/^.*$/\ &\ /
# Move first character at the end. The regexp matches until # there are zero or one characters between the markers tx :x s/\(\n.\)\(.*\)\(.\n\)/\3\2\1/ tx
# Remove the newline markers s/\n//g
Next: cat -n, Previous: Reverse chars of lines, Up: Examples [Contents][Index]
This one begins a series of totally useless (yet interesting)
scripts emulating various Unix commands. This, in particular,
is a tac
workalike.
Note that on implementations other than GNU sed
this script might easily overflow internal buffers.
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf # reverse all lines of input, i.e. first line became last, ...
# from the second line, the buffer (which contains all previous lines) # is *appended* to current line, so, the order will be reversed 1! G
# on the last line we're done -- print everything $ p
# store everything on the buffer again h
This script replaces ‘cat -n’; in fact it formats its output
exactly like GNU cat
does.
Of course this is completely useless and for two reasons: first, because somebody else did it in C, second, because the following Bourne-shell script could be used for the same purpose and would be much faster:
#! /bin/sh sed -e "=" $@ | sed -e ' s/^/ / N s/^ *\(......\)\n/\1 / '
It uses sed
to print the line number, then groups lines two
by two using N
. Of course, this script does not teach as much as
the one presented below.
The algorithm used for incrementing uses both buffers, so the line
is printed as soon as possible and then discarded. The number
is split so that changing digits go in a buffer and unchanged ones go
in the other; the changed digits are modified in a single step
(using a y
command). The line number for the next line
is then composed and stored in the hold space, to be used in the
next iteration.
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf
# Prime the pump on the first line x /^$/ s/^.*$/1/
# Add the correct line number before the pattern G h
# Format it and print it s/^/ / s/^ *\(......\)\n/\1 /p
# Get the line number from hold space; add a zero # if we're going to add a digit on the next line g s/\n.*$// /^9*$/ s/^/0/
# separate changing/unchanged digits with an x s/.9*$/x&/
# keep changing digits in hold space h s/^.*x// y/0123456789/1234567890/ x
# keep unchanged digits in pattern space s/x.*$//
# compose the new number, remove the newline implicitly added by G G s/\n// h
Emulating ‘cat -b’ is almost the same as ‘cat -n’—we only have to select which lines are to be numbered and which are not.
The part that is common to this script and the previous one is
not commented to show how important it is to comment sed
scripts properly...
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf
/^$/ { p b }
# Same as cat -n from now x /^$/ s/^.*$/1/ G h s/^/ / s/^ *\(......\)\n/\1 /p x s/\n.*$// /^9*$/ s/^/0/ s/.9*$/x&/ h s/^.*x// y/0123456789/1234567890/ x s/x.*$// G s/\n// h
This script shows another way to do arithmetic with sed
.
In this case we have to add possibly large numbers, so implementing
this by successive increments would not be feasible (and possibly
even more complicated to contrive than this script).
The approach is to map numbers to letters, kind of an abacus
implemented with sed
. ‘a’s are units, ‘b’s are
tens and so on: we simply add the number of characters
on the current line as units, and then propagate the carry
to tens, hundreds, and so on.
As usual, running totals are kept in hold space.
On the last line, we convert the abacus form back to decimal.
For the sake of variety, this is done with a loop rather than
with some 80 s
commands9: first we
convert units, removing ‘a’s from the number; then we
rotate letters so that tens become ‘a’s, and so on
until no more letters remain.
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf
# Add n+1 a's to hold space (+1 is for the newline) s/./a/g H x s/\n/a/
# Do the carry. The t's and b's are not necessary, # but they do speed up the thing t a : a; s/aaaaaaaaaa/b/g; t b; b done : b; s/bbbbbbbbbb/c/g; t c; b done : c; s/cccccccccc/d/g; t d; b done : d; s/dddddddddd/e/g; t e; b done : e; s/eeeeeeeeee/f/g; t f; b done : f; s/ffffffffff/g/g; t g; b done : g; s/gggggggggg/h/g; t h; b done : h; s/hhhhhhhhhh//g
: done $! { h b }
# On the last line, convert back to decimal
: loop /a/! s/[b-h]*/&0/ s/aaaaaaaaa/9/ s/aaaaaaaa/8/ s/aaaaaaa/7/ s/aaaaaa/6/ s/aaaaa/5/ s/aaaa/4/ s/aaa/3/ s/aa/2/ s/a/1/
: next y/bcdefgh/abcdefg/ /[a-h]/ b loop p
This script is almost the same as the previous one, once each of the words on the line is converted to a single ‘a’ (in the previous script each letter was changed to an ‘a’).
It is interesting that real wc
programs have optimized
loops for ‘wc -c’, so they are much slower at counting
words rather than characters. This script’s bottleneck,
instead, is arithmetic, and hence the word-counting one
is faster (it has to manage smaller numbers).
Again, the common parts are not commented to show the importance
of commenting sed
scripts.
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf
# Convert words to a's s/[ tab][ tab]*/ /g s/^/ / s/ [^ ][^ ]*/a /g s/ //g
# Append them to hold space H x s/\n//
# From here on it is the same as in wc -c. /aaaaaaaaaa/! bx; s/aaaaaaaaaa/b/g /bbbbbbbbbb/! bx; s/bbbbbbbbbb/c/g /cccccccccc/! bx; s/cccccccccc/d/g /dddddddddd/! bx; s/dddddddddd/e/g /eeeeeeeeee/! bx; s/eeeeeeeeee/f/g /ffffffffff/! bx; s/ffffffffff/g/g /gggggggggg/! bx; s/gggggggggg/h/g s/hhhhhhhhhh//g :x $! { h; b; } :y /a/! s/[b-h]*/&0/ s/aaaaaaaaa/9/ s/aaaaaaaa/8/ s/aaaaaaa/7/ s/aaaaaa/6/ s/aaaaa/5/ s/aaaa/4/ s/aaa/3/ s/aa/2/ s/a/1/ y/bcdefgh/abcdefg/ /[a-h]/ by p
No strange things are done now, because sed
gives us
‘wc -l’ functionality for free!!! Look:
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf $=
This script is probably the simplest useful sed
script.
It displays the first 10 lines of input; the number of displayed
lines is right before the q
command.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f 10q
Printing the last n lines rather than the first is more complex but indeed possible. n is encoded in the second line, before the bang character.
This script is similar to the tac
script in that it keeps the
final output in the hold space and prints it at the end:
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf
1! {; H; g; } 1,10 !s/[^\n]*\n// $p h
Mainly, the scripts keeps a window of 10 lines and slides it
by adding a line and deleting the oldest (the substitution command
on the second line works like a D
command but does not
restart the loop).
The “sliding window” technique is a very powerful way to write
efficient and complex sed
scripts, because commands like
P
would require a lot of work if implemented manually.
To introduce the technique, which is fully demonstrated in the
rest of this chapter and is based on the N
, P
and D
commands, here is an implementation of tail
using a simple “sliding window.”
This looks complicated but in fact the working is the same as
the last script: after we have kicked in the appropriate number
of lines, however, we stop using the hold space to keep inter-line
state, and instead use N
and D
to slide pattern
space by one line:
#!/usr/bin/sed -f
1h 2,10 {; H; g; } $q 1,9d N D
Note how the first, second and fourth line are inactive after the first ten lines of input. After that, all the script does is: exiting on the last line of input, appending the next input line to pattern space, and removing the first line.
This is an example of the art of using the N
, P
and D
commands, probably the most difficult to master.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f h
:b # On the last line, print and exit $b N /^\(.*\)\n\1$/ { # The two lines are identical. Undo the effect of # the n command. g bb }
# If the N
command had added the last line, print and exit
$b
# The lines are different; print the first and go # back working on the second. P D
As you can see, we mantain a 2-line window using P
and D
.
This technique is often used in advanced sed
scripts.
This script prints only duplicated lines, like ‘uniq -d’.
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf
$b N /^\(.*\)\n\1$/ { # Print the first of the duplicated lines s/.*\n// p
# Loop until we get a different line :b $b N /^\(.*\)\n\1$/ { s/.*\n// bb } }
# The last line cannot be followed by duplicates $b
# Found a different one. Leave it alone in the pattern space # and go back to the top, hunting its duplicates D
This script prints only unique lines, like ‘uniq -u’.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f
# Search for a duplicate line --- until that, print what you find. $b N /^\(.*\)\n\1$/ ! { P D }
:c # Got two equal lines in pattern space. At the # end of the file we simply exit $d
# Else, we keep reading lines with N
until we
# find a different one
s/.*\n//
N
/^\(.*\)\n\1$/ {
bc
}
# Remove the last instance of the duplicate line # and go back to the top D
As a final example, here are three scripts, of increasing complexity and speed, that implement the same function as ‘cat -s’, that is squeezing blank lines.
The first leaves a blank line at the beginning and end if there are some already.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f
# on empty lines, join with next # Note there is a star in the regexp :x /^\n*$/ { N bx }
# now, squeeze all '\n', this can be also done by: # s/^\(\n\)*/\1/ s/\n*/\ /
This one is a bit more complex and removes all empty lines at the beginning. It does leave a single blank line at end if one was there.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f
# delete all leading empty lines 1,/^./{ /./!d }
# on an empty line we remove it and all the following # empty lines, but one :x /./!{ N s/^\n$// tx }
This removes leading and trailing blank lines. It is also the
fastest. Note that loops are completely done with n
and
b
, without relying on sed
to restart the
script automatically at the end of a line.
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf
# delete all (leading) blanks /./!d
# get here: so there is a non empty :x # print it p # get next n # got chars? print it again, etc... /./bx
# no, don't have chars: got an empty line :z # get next, if last line we finish here so no trailing # empty lines are written n # also empty? then ignore it, and get next... this will # remove ALL empty lines /./!bz
# all empty lines were deleted/ignored, but we have a non empty. As # what we want to do is to squeeze, insert a blank line artificially i\
bx
Next: Other Resources, Previous: Examples, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
sed
’s Limitations and Non-limitationsFor those who want to write portable sed
scripts,
be aware that some implementations have been known to
limit line lengths (for the pattern and hold spaces)
to be no more than 4000 bytes.
The POSIX standard specifies that conforming sed
implementations shall support at least 8192 byte line lengths.
GNU sed
has no built-in limit on line length;
as long as it can malloc()
more (virtual) memory,
you can feed or construct lines as long as you like.
However, recursion is used to handle subpatterns and indefinite repetition. This means that the available stack space may limit the size of the buffer that can be processed by certain patterns.
Next: Reporting Bugs, Previous: Limitations, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
sed
In addition to several books that have been written about sed
(either specifically or as chapters in books which discuss
shell programming), one can find out more about sed
(including suggestions of a few books) from the FAQ
for the sed-users
mailing list, available from:
Also of interest are
http://www.student.northpark.edu/pemente/sed/index.htm
and http://sed.sf.net/grabbag,
which include sed
tutorials and other sed
-related goodies.
The sed-users
mailing list itself maintained by Sven Guckes.
To subscribe, visit http://groups.yahoo.com and search
for the sed-users
mailing list.
Next: Extended regexps, Previous: Other Resources, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
Email bug reports to bug-sed@gnu.org. Also, please include the output of ‘sed --version’ in the body of your report if at all possible.
Please do not send a bug report like this:
while building frobme-1.3.4
$ configure
error→ sed: file sedscr line 1: Unknown option to 's'
If GNU sed
doesn’t configure your favorite package, take a
few extra minutes to identify the specific problem and make a stand-alone
test case. Unlike other programs such as C compilers, making such test
cases for sed
is quite simple.
A stand-alone test case includes all the data necessary to perform the
test, and the specific invocation of sed
that causes the problem.
The smaller a stand-alone test case is, the better. A test case should
not involve something as far removed from sed
as “try to configure
frobme-1.3.4”. Yes, that is in principle enough information to look
for the bug, but that is not a very practical prospect.
Here are a few commonly reported bugs that are not bugs.
N
command on the last lineMost versions of sed
exit without printing anything when
the N
command is issued on the last line of a file.
GNU sed
prints pattern space before exiting unless of course
the -n
command switch has been specified. This choice is
by design.
Default behaviour (gnu extension, non-POSIX conforming):
$ seq 3 | sed N 1 2 3
To force POSIX-conforming behavior:
$ seq 3 | sed --posix N 1 2
For example, the behavior of
sed N foo bar
would depend on whether foo has an even or an odd number of
lines10. Or, when writing a script to read the
next few lines following a pattern match, traditional
implementations of sed
would force you to write
something like
/foo/{ $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N }
instead of just
/foo/{ N;N;N;N;N;N;N;N;N; }
In any case, the simplest workaround is to use $d;N
in
scripts that rely on the traditional behavior, or to set
the POSIXLY_CORRECT
variable to a non-empty value.
sed
uses the POSIX basic regular expression syntax. According to
the standard, the meaning of some escape sequences is undefined in
this syntax; notable in the case of sed
are \|
,
\+
, \?
, \`
, \'
, \<
,
\>
, \b
, \B
, \w
, and \W
.
As in all GNU programs that use POSIX basic regular
expressions, sed
interprets these escape sequences as special
characters. So, x\+
matches one or more occurrences of ‘x’.
abc\|def
matches either ‘abc’ or ‘def’.
This syntax may cause problems when running scripts written for other
sed
s. Some sed
programs have been written with the
assumption that \|
and \+
match the literal characters
|
and +
. Such scripts must be modified by removing the
spurious backslashes if they are to be used with modern implementations
of sed
, like
GNU sed
.
On the other hand, some scripts use s|abc\|def||g to remove occurrences
of either abc
or def
. While this worked until
sed
4.0.x, newer versions interpret this as removing the
string abc|def
. This is again undefined behavior according to
POSIX, and this interpretation is arguably more robust: older
sed
s, for example, required that the regex matcher parsed
\/
as /
in the common case of escaping a slash, which is
again undefined behavior; the new behavior avoids this, and this is good
because the regex matcher is only partially under our control.
In addition, this version of sed
supports several escape characters
(some of which are multi-character) to insert non-printable characters
in scripts (\a
, \c
, \d
, \o
, \r
,
\t
, \v
, \x
). These can cause similar problems
with scripts written for other sed
s.
In short, ‘sed -i’ will let you delete the contents of a read-only file, and in general the -i option (see Invocation) lets you clobber protected files. This is not a bug, but rather a consequence of how the Unix file system works.
The permissions on a file say what can happen to the data
in that file, while the permissions on a directory say what can
happen to the list of files in that directory. ‘sed -i’
will not ever open for writing a file that is already on disk.
Rather, it will work on a temporary file that is finally renamed
to the original name: if you rename or delete files, you’re actually
modifying the contents of the directory, so the operation depends on
the permissions of the directory, not of the file. For this same
reason, sed
does not let you use -i on a writeable file
in a read-only directory, and will break hard or symbolic links when
-i is used on such a file.
0a
does not work (gives an error)There is no line 0. 0 is a special address that is only used to treat
addresses like 0,/RE/
as active when the script starts: if
you write 1,/abc/d
and the first line includes the word ‘abc’,
then that match would be ignored because address ranges must span at least
two lines (barring the end of the file); but what you probably wanted is
to delete every line up to the first one including ‘abc’, and this
is obtained with 0,/abc/d
.
[a-z]
is case insensitiveYou are encountering problems with locales. POSIX mandates that [a-z]
uses the current locale’s collation order – in C parlance, that means using
strcoll(3)
instead of strcmp(3)
. Some locales have a
case-insensitive collation order, others don’t.
Another problem is that [a-z]
tries to use collation symbols.
This only happens if you are on the GNU system, using
GNU libc’s regular expression matcher instead of compiling the
one supplied with GNU sed. In a Danish locale, for example,
the regular expression ^[a-z]$
matches the string ‘aa’,
because this is a single collating symbol that comes after ‘a’
and before ‘b’; ‘ll’ behaves similarly in Spanish
locales, or ‘ij’ in Dutch locales.
To work around these problems, which may cause bugs in shell scripts, set
the LC_COLLATE
and LC_CTYPE
environment variables to ‘C’.
s/.*//
does not clear pattern spaceThis happens if your input stream includes invalid multibyte
sequences. POSIX mandates that such sequences
are not matched by ‘.’, so that ‘s/.*//’ will not clear
pattern space as you would expect. In fact, there is no way to clear
sed’s buffers in the middle of the script in most multibyte locales
(including UTF-8 locales). For this reason, GNU sed
provides a ‘z’
command (for ‘zap’) as an extension.
To work around these problems, which may cause bugs in shell scripts, set
the LC_COLLATE
and LC_CTYPE
environment variables to ‘C’.
Next: Concept Index, Previous: Reporting Bugs, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
The only difference between basic and extended regular expressions is in the behavior of a few characters: ‘?’, ‘+’, parentheses, braces (‘{}’), and ‘|’. While basic regular expressions require these to be escaped if you want them to behave as special characters, when using extended regular expressions you must escape them if you want them to match a literal character. ‘|’ is special here because ‘\|’ is a GNU extension – standard basic regular expressions do not provide its functionality.
Examples:
abc?
becomes ‘abc\?’ when using extended regular expressions. It matches the literal string ‘abc?’.
c\+
becomes ‘c+’ when using extended regular expressions. It matches one or more ‘c’s.
a\{3,\}
becomes ‘a{3,}’ when using extended regular expressions. It matches three or more ‘a’s.
\(abc\)\{2,3\}
becomes ‘(abc){2,3}’ when using extended regular expressions. It matches either ‘abcabc’ or ‘abcabcabc’.
\(abc*\)\1
becomes ‘(abc*)\1’ when using extended regular expressions. Backreferences must still be escaped when using extended regular expressions.
a\|b
becomes ‘a|b’ when using extended regular expressions. It matches ‘a’ or ‘b’.
Next: Command and Option Index, Previous: Extended regexps, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
This is a general index of all issues discussed in this manual, with the
exception of the sed
commands and command-line options.
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This is an alphabetical list of all sed
commands and command-line
options.
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sed
Programs
bash
Environmentsed
’s Limitations and Non-limitationssed
This applies to commands such as =
,
a
, c
, i
, l
, p
. You can
still write to the standard output by using the w
or W
commands together with the /dev/stdout
special file
Note that GNU sed
creates the backup
file whether or not any output is actually changed.
Actually,
if sed
prints a line without the terminating newline, it will
nevertheless print the missing newline as soon as more text is sent to
the same output stream, which gives the “least expected surprise”
even though it does not make commands like ‘sed -n p’ exactly
identical to cat
.
This is equivalent to p
unless the -i
option is being used.
This is equivalent to p
unless the -i
option is being used.
All
the escapes introduced here are GNU
extensions, with the exception of \n
. In basic regular
expression mode, setting POSIXLY_CORRECT
disables them inside
bracket expressions.
sed
guru Greg
Ubben wrote an implementation of the dc
RPN calculator!
It is distributed together with sed.
This requires another script to pad the output of banner; for example
#! /bin/sh banner -w $1 $2 $3 $4 | sed -e :a -e '/^.\{0,'$1'\}$/ { s/$/ /; ba; }' | ~/sedscripts/reverseline.sed
Some implementations have a limit of 199 commands per script
which is the actual “bug” that prompted the change in behavior